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Message: <blockquote data-quote="GAC" data-source="post: 10271452" data-attributes="member: 224361">Windows 1.0 and Windows 2.0  <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_2.1x" target="_blank"></a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_2.1x" target="_blank"></a>  The first independent version of Microsoft Windows, version 1.0,  released on 20 November 1985, achieved little popularity. It was  originally going to be called "Interface Manager" but <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rowland_Hanson&action=edit&redlink=1" target="_blank">Rowland Hanson</a>, the head of marketing at Microsoft, convinced the company that the name Windows  would be more appealing to consumers. Windows 1.0 was not a complete  operating system, but rather an "operating environment" that extended <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MS-DOS" target="_blank">MS-DOS</a>, and shared the latter's inherent flaws and problems.  The first version of Microsoft Windows included a simple graphics painting program called <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_Paint" target="_blank">Windows Paint</a>; <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_Write" target="_blank">Windows Write</a>, a simple <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word_processor" target="_blank">word processor</a>; an appointment "calendar"; a "cardfiler"; a "<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notepad_%28Windows%29" target="_blank">notepad</a>"; a "clock"; a "<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_panel_%28computer%29" target="_blank">control panel</a>"; a "<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_terminal" target="_blank">computer terminal</a>"; "<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clipboard_%28software%29" target="_blank">Clipboard</a>"; and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAM" target="_blank">RAM</a> driver. It also included the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MS-DOS_Executive" target="_blank">MS-DOS Executive</a> and a game called <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reversi" target="_blank">Reversi</a>.  Microsoft had worked with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_Inc." target="_blank">Apple Computer</a> to develop several <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desk_Accessory" target="_blank">Desk Accessories</a> and other minor pieces of software that were included with early <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macintosh" target="_blank">Macintosh</a> system software.  As part of the related business negotiations, Microsoft had licensed  certain aspects of the Macintosh user interface from Apple; in later  litigation, a district court summarized these aspects as "screen  displays". In the development of Windows 1.0, Microsoft intentionally  limited its borrowing of certain GUI elements from the Macintosh user  interface, to comply with its license.    <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Windows1.0.png" target="_blank"><img src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4e/Windows1.0.png/220px-Windows1.0.png" alt="" class="fr-fic fr-dii fr-draggable " style="" /></a>  <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Windows1.0.png" target="_blank"></a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Windows1.0.png" target="_blank"></a>       For example, windows were only displayed "tiled" on the screen; that  is, they could not overlap or overlie one another. There was no trash  can icon with which to delete files, since Apple claimed ownership of  the rights to that paradigm.  Microsoft Windows version 2 came out on 9 December 1987, and proved  slightly more popular than its predecessor. Much of the popularity for <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_2.0" target="_blank">Windows 2.0</a> came by way of its inclusion as a "run-time version" with Microsoft's new graphical applications, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Excel" target="_blank">Excel</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Word" target="_blank">Word for Windows</a>. They could be run from MS-DOS, executing Windows for the duration of their activity, and closing down Windows upon exit.  Microsoft Windows received a major boost around this time when <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aldus" target="_blank">Aldus</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adobe_PageMaker" target="_blank">PageMaker</a> appeared in a Windows version, having previously run only on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_Macintosh" target="_blank">Macintosh</a>. Some computer historians date this, the first appearance of a significant and non-Microsoft application for Windows, as the start of the success of Windows.  Versions 2.0x used the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_mode" target="_blank">real-mode</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_storage" target="_blank">memory</a> model, which confined it to a maximum of 1 <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megabyte" target="_blank">megabyte</a> of memory. In such a configuration, it could run under another multitasker like <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DESQview" target="_blank">DESQview</a>, which used the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_80286" target="_blank">286</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protected_mode" target="_blank">protected mode</a>.  Later, two new versions were released: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows/286" target="_blank">Windows/286</a> 2.1 and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows/386" target="_blank">Windows/386</a> 2.1. Like prior versions of Windows, Windows/286 2.1 used the real-mode memory model, but was the first version to support the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_Memory_Area" target="_blank">High Memory Area</a>. Windows/386 2.1 had a protected mode kernel with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LIM_EMS" target="_blank">LIM-standard EMS</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardware_emulation" target="_blank">emulation</a>, the predecessor to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extended_memory" target="_blank">XMS</a> which would finally change the topology of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM" target="_blank">IBM</a>  PC computing. All Windows and DOS-based applications at the time were  real mode, running over the protected mode kernel by using the virtual <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_8086" target="_blank">8086</a> mode, which was new with the 80386 processor.  Version 2.03, and later 3.0, faced <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_v._Microsoft" target="_blank">challenges from Apple</a>  over its overlapping windows and other features Apple charged mimicked  the ostensibly copyrighted "look and feel" of its operating system and  "embodie[d] and generated a copy of the Macintosh" in its OS. Judge <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Schwarzer" target="_blank">William Schwarzer</a>  dropped all but 10 of Apple's 189 claims of copyright infringement, and  ruled that most of the remaining 10 were over uncopyrightable ideas.  Windows 3.0   <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Windows_3.0_workspace.png" target="_blank"><img src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/15/Windows_3.0_workspace.png/220px-Windows_3.0_workspace.png" alt="" class="fr-fic fr-dii fr-draggable " style="" /></a>      <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_3.0" target="_blank"></a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_3.0" target="_blank"></a>  Microsoft Windows scored a significant success with Windows 3.0,  released in 1990. In addition to improved capabilities given to native  applications, Windows also allowed users to better <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_multitasking" target="_blank">multitask</a> older MS-DOS based software compared to Windows/386, thanks to the introduction of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_memory" target="_blank">virtual memory</a>.  Windows 3.0's user interface was finally a serious competitor to the user interface of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macintosh" target="_blank">Macintosh</a> computer. PCs had improved graphics by this time, due to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VGA" target="_blank">VGA</a>  video cards, and the protected/enhanced mode allowed Windows  applications to use more memory in a more painless manner than their DOS  counterparts could. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_3.0" target="_blank">Windows 3.0</a> could run in real, standard, or 386 enhanced modes, and was compatible with any Intel processor from the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_8086" target="_blank">8086</a>/<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_8088" target="_blank">8088</a> up to the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_80286" target="_blank">80286</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_80386" target="_blank">80386</a>. This was the first version to run Windows programs in protected mode, although the 386 enhanced mode <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernel_%28computer_science%29" target="_blank">kernel</a> was an enhanced version of the protected mode kernel in Windows/386.  A "multimedia" version, Windows 3.0 with Multimedia Extensions 1.0,  was released in October of 1991. This was bundled with "multimedia  upgrade kits", comprising a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CD-ROM_drive" target="_blank">CD-ROM drive</a> and a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound_card" target="_blank">sound card</a>, such as the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creative_Labs" target="_blank">Creative Labs</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound_Blaster_Pro" target="_blank">Sound Blaster Pro</a>. This version was the precursor to the multimedia features available in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_3.1" target="_blank">Windows 3.1</a> and later, and was part of Microsoft's specification for the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multimedia_PC" target="_blank">Multimedia PC</a>.  The features listed above and growing market support from application  software developers made Windows 3.0 wildly successful, selling around  10 million copies in the two years before the release of version 3.1.  Windows 3.0 became a major source of income for Microsoft, and led the  company to revise some of its earlier plans. It was discontinued on 31  December 2001.  A step sideways: OS/2   <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Os2logo.svg" target="_blank"><img src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fe/Os2logo.svg/220px-Os2logo.svg.png" alt="" class="fr-fic fr-dii fr-draggable " style="" /></a>     During the mid to late 1980s, Microsoft and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM" target="_blank">IBM</a> had cooperatively been developing <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OS/2" target="_blank">OS/2</a> as a successor to DOS. OS/2 would take full advantage of the aforementioned protected mode of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_80286" target="_blank">Intel 80286</a> processor and up to 16 MB of memory. OS/2 1.0, released in 1987, supported swapping and multitasking and allowed running of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DOS" target="_blank">DOS</a> executables.  A <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphical_user_interface" target="_blank">GUI</a>, called the Presentation Manager (PM), was not available with OS/2 until version 1.1, released in 1988. Its <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application_programming_interface" target="_blank">API</a> was incompatible with Windows. (Among other things, Presentation Manager placed X,Y coordinate 0,0 at the bottom left of the screen like <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartesian_coordinates" target="_blank">Cartesian coordinates</a>, while Windows put 0,0 at the top left of the screen like most other computer window systems.) Version 1.2, released in 1989, introduced a new <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File_system" target="_blank">file system</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_Performance_File_System" target="_blank">HPFS</a>, to replace the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File_Allocation_Table" target="_blank">FAT</a> file system.  By the early 1990s, conflicts developed in the Microsoft/IBM  relationship. They cooperated with each other in developing their PC  operating systems, and had access to each others' code. Microsoft wanted  to further develop Windows, while IBM desired for future work to be  based on OS/2. In an attempt to resolve this tension, IBM and Microsoft  agreed that IBM would develop OS/2 2.0, to replace OS/2 1.3 and Windows  3.0, while Microsoft would develop a new operating system, OS/2 3.0, to  later succeed OS/2 2.0.  This agreement soon however fell apart, and the Microsoft/IBM  relationship was terminated. IBM continued to develop OS/2, while  Microsoft changed the name of its (as yet unreleased) OS/2 3.0 to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_NT" target="_blank">Windows NT</a>.  Both retained the rights to use OS/2 and Windows technology developed  up to the termination of the agreement; Windows NT, however, was to be  written anew, mostly independently (see below).  After an interim 1.3 version to fix up many remaining problems with  the 1.x series, IBM released OS/2 version 2.0 in 1992. This was a major  improvement: it featured a new, object-oriented GUI, the Workplace Shell  (WPS), that included a desktop and was considered by many to be OS/2's  best feature. Microsoft would later imitate much of it in Windows 95.  Version 2.0 also provided a full 32-bit API, offered smooth multitasking  and could take advantage of the 4 gigabytes of address space provided  by the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_80386" target="_blank">Intel 80386</a>.  Still, much of the system had 16-bit code internally which required,  among other things, device drivers to be 16-bit code also. This was one  of the reasons for the chronic shortage of OS/2 drivers for the latest  devices. Version 2.0 could also run DOS and Windows 3.0 programs, since  IBM had retained the right to use the DOS and Windows code as a result  of the breakup.  Windows 3.1 and NT   <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Windows_3.11_workspace.png" target="_blank"><img src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/7/73/Windows_3.11_workspace.png/220px-Windows_3.11_workspace.png" alt="" class="fr-fic fr-dii fr-draggable " style="" /></a>  <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Windows_3.11_workspace.png" target="_blank"></a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Windows_3.11_workspace.png" target="_blank"></a>     <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_NT_3.1" target="_blank"></a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_NT_3.1" target="_blank"></a>  In response to the impending release of OS/2 2.0, Microsoft developed <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_3.1x#Windows_3.1" target="_blank">Windows 3.1</a>, which included several minor improvements to Windows 3.0 (such as display of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TrueType" target="_blank">TrueType</a>  scalable fonts, developed jointly with Apple), but primarily consisted  of bugfixes and multimedia support. It also excluded support for Real  mode, and only ran on an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/80286" target="_blank">80286</a>  or better processor. Later Microsoft also released Windows 3.11, a  touch-up to Windows 3.1 which included all of the patches and updates  that followed the release of Windows 3.1 in 1992. Around the same time,  Microsoft released Windows for Workgroups (WfW), which was available  both as an add-on for existing Windows 3.1 installations and in a  version that included the base Windows environment and the networking  extensions all in one package. Windows for Workgroups included improved  network drivers and protocol stacks, and support for peer-to-peer  networking. One optional download for WfW was the "Wolverine" TCP/IP  protocol stack, which allowed for easy access to the Internet through  corporate networks. There were two versions of Windows for Workgroups,  WfW 3.1 and WfW 3.11. Unlike prior versions, Windows for Workgroups 3.11  ran in 386 enhanced mode only, and needs at least an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/80386" target="_blank">80386</a>SX processor.  All these versions continued version 3.0's impressive sales pace.  Even though the 3.1x series still lacked most of the important features  of OS/2, such as long file names, a desktop, or protection of the system  against misbehaving applications, Microsoft quickly took over the OS  and GUI markets for the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_PC" target="_blank">IBM PC</a>. The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_API" target="_blank">Windows API</a> became the de-facto standard for consumer software.  Meanwhile Microsoft continued to develop Windows NT. The main architect of the system was <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dave_Cutler" target="_blank">Dave Cutler</a>, one of the chief architects of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_Memory_System" target="_blank">VMS</a> at <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Equipment_Corporation" target="_blank">Digital Equipment Corporation</a> (later acquired by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compaq" target="_blank">Compaq</a>, now part of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hewlett-Packard" target="_blank">Hewlett-Packard</a>).  Microsoft hired him in August 1988 to create a successor to OS/2, but  Cutler created a completely new system instead. Cutler had been  developing a follow-on to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_Memory_System" target="_blank">VMS</a> at <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Equipment_Corporation" target="_blank">DEC</a>  called Mica, and when DEC dropped the project he brought the expertise  and around 20 engineers with him to Microsoft. DEC also believed he  brought Mica's code to Microsoft and sued. Microsoft eventually paid US$150 million and agreed to support DEC's <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DEC_Alpha" target="_blank">Alpha</a> CPU chip in NT.  Windows NT 3.1 (Microsoft marketing wanted Windows NT to appear to be  a continuation of Windows 3.1) arrived in Beta form to developers at  the July 1992 <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Professional_Developers_Conference" target="_blank">Professional Developers Conference</a> in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Francisco" target="_blank">San Francisco</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Microsoft_Windows#cite_note-3" target="_blank">[4]</a> Microsoft announced at the conference its intentions to develop a successor to both Windows NT and Windows 3.1's replacement (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_95" target="_blank">Windows 95</a>, codenamed Chicago), which would unify the two into one operating system. This successor was codenamed <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cairo_%28operating_system%29" target="_blank">Cairo</a>.  In hindsight, Cairo was a much more difficult project than Microsoft  had anticipated and, as a result, NT and Chicago would not be unified  until <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_XP" target="_blank">Windows XP</a>—albeit <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_2000" target="_blank">Windows 2000</a>,  oriented to business, had already unified most of the system’s bolts  and gears, it was XP that was sold to home consumers like Windows 95 and  came to be viewed as the final unified OS. Parts of Cairo have still  not made it into Windows as of 2009 - specifically, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WinFS" target="_blank">WinFS</a>  file system, which was the much touted Object File System of Cairo.  Microsoft announced that they have discontinued the separate release of  WinFS for Windows XP and Windows Vista and will gradually incorporate the technologies developed for WinFS in other products and technologies, notably <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_SQL_Server" target="_blank">Microsoft SQL Server</a>.  Driver support was lacking due to the increased programming  difficulty in dealing with NT's superior hardware abstraction model.  This problem plagued the NT line all the way through Windows 2000.  Programmers complained that it was too hard to write drivers for NT, and  hardware developers were not going to go through the trouble of  developing drivers for a small segment of the market. Additionally,  although allowing for good performance and fuller exploitation of system  resources, it was also resource-intensive on limited hardware, and thus  was only suitable for larger, more expensive machines.  However, these same features made Windows NT perfect for the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_area_network" target="_blank">LAN</a>  server market (which in 1993 was experiencing a rapid boom, as office  networking was becoming common). NT also had advanced network  connectivity options and the efficient <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NTFS" target="_blank">NTFS</a>  file system. Windows NT version 3.51 was Microsoft's entry into this  field, and took away market share from Novell (the dominant player) in  the following years.  One of Microsoft's biggest advances initially developed for Windows NT was a new 32-bit API, to replace the legacy 16-bit <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_API" target="_blank">Windows API</a>. This API was called <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Win32" target="_blank">Win32</a>, and from then on Microsoft referred to the older 16-bit API as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Win16" target="_blank">Win16</a>. The Win32 API had three main implementations: one for Windows NT, one for <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Win32s" target="_blank">Win32s</a>  (which was a subset of Win32 which could be used on Windows 3.1  systems).  Windows NT was the first Windows operating system based on a hybrid  kernel.</blockquote>

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