Plastic by the numbers
Companies large and small are starting to turn to plastics made of plants rather than petroleum. However, most plastics are still made from fossil fuels.
Plastics make up 11.7 percent of U.S. waste and are among the least-recycled items. The manufacture of plastics can involve the emission of toxic substances into the atmosphere. And when plastics are incinerated, toxics such as lead and chlorine are released.
Chemists have spun hundreds of kinds of plastics, but most common containers fall in one of seven categories. To help recycling centers sort landfill-bound plastics from those than can find life in new products, the Society of the Plastics Industry developed the numeric system to identify the type of plastic resins used.
One of the most common types of plastic is polyethylene terephthalate (PET or PETE), commonly found in bottles of soda, juice, water, and cough syrup, and jars of peanut butter. The bottoms of these containers are usually stamped with the chasing arrows symbol and the number 1, a code for PET.
An urban legend circulating over e-mail has warned people of cancer-causing chemicals leaching from water bottles left in hot cars, although PET is understood to be one of the least toxic forms of plastic.
The EPA no longer lists DEHA, a chemical used in PET, as a carcinogen. Contrary to what their name seems to suggest, PET plastics do not contain phthalate softeners, found in vinyl, which studies increasingly link to cancer and infertility.
Studies do show that PET bottles can leach toxic antimony, although at levels deemed safe (PDF) by the World Health Organization. And doctors advise against reusing disposable plastic water bottles because they are hard to clean and can trap bacteria.
High-density polyethylene, or No. 2 HDPE, used in shampoo and detergent bottles, milk jugs, cosmetics, motor oil, toys, and sturdy shopping bags, is considered one of the safer plastics. HDPE is often opaque or cloudy. Some recycling centers can only handle clear No. 2 plastics, such as milk jugs, but not colored bottles.
As rule of thumb, bottles, jars, and jugs are most likely to be collected for recycling, particularly those labeled 1 or 2.
Tubs, lids, spray pumps, buckets, films, bags, and items containing toxic chemicals such as drain cleaner, are less likely to be accepted by recyclers.
Environmental groups generally warn against using plastics No. 3, 6, and 7, whose toxic side effects are best understood. However, the making of No. 2 HDPE has involved toxic chemicals such as hexane and benzene. Plastics makers stress the safety of their products and aim to debunk myths.
But most plastic is "downcycled," meaning that unlike materials such as pure aluminum, it loses valuable properties and strength the more it is recycled. Unfortunately, there are no hard and fast plastics recycling rules, which vary by region. Many communities lack the resources to handle all types, so it's necessary to check local guidelines before tossing something in a recycling bin. Plus, the majority of plastics collected, even in the San Francisco Bay Area, are sent to Asia, particularly China, which further increases the carbon emissions of the plastics life cycle.
In terms of shipments, making plastics is the fifth largest U.S. manufacturing industry in 2005, according to the American Chemistry Council. The sector employs more than 1.1 million people, according to the Society of the Plastics Industry.
Polyvinyl chloride, or No. 3 PVC, is found in shower curtains, meat and cheese wrappers, three-ring binders, some bottles, plumbing pipes, and building materials. Commonly called vinyl, PVC and closely-related PVDC differ from other vinyls, which lack the toxic chloride. PVC continues to be used in many toys.
The plastics industry defends the safety of PVC, but it's the most toxic plastic, according to many environmental and health groups. Both the making and disposal of PVC release dioxin, one of the most poisonous, cancer-linked chemicals, into the air and water.
PVC alternatives include PEVA for shower curtains and PVA in paints and glues. However, unless otherwise marked, most vinyl products use PVC.
The first Saran Wrap was made of PVDC, but the brand switched to less-toxic LDPE (No. 4) several years ago. Neither Glad nor Ziploc use PVDC, although some deli counters and cheese sellers continue to wrap their goods in it. Consumer Reports found 10 years ago that DEHA leached from PVDC wrap into cheese.
For flexibility, PVC children's toys and sex toys also contains phthalates, which are now commonly found in the blood of humans. These chemicals are known to interrupt hormonal activities and are tied to infertility and early-onset puberty. Electronics makers including Apple have been criticized for using phthalates in gadgets including iPods; Apple is discontinuing the use of PVC.
Wal-Mart, Target, Sears, and Kmart have agreed to phase out PVC goods. Packaging designers are ceasing the use of PVC from "clamshell" packaging of consumer electronics.
For a humorous introduction to concerns about PVC, the documentary Blue Vinyl tracks a woman's efforts to convince her parents not to use vinyl siding on their home.
Low-density polyethylene, or No. 4 LDPE, is used in shopping bags, six-pack rings, hard drive casings, CD and DVD cases, and some bottles. Unlike PVC, LDPE isn't regarded as a "bad" plastic by most eco-watchdogs. Potentially toxic industrial chemicals involved in its manufacture, however, include butane, benzene, and vinyl acetate.
A common environmental horror story is that of six-pack rings strangling birds and sea turtles. But for 19 years federal law has required six-pack rings to break down when exposed to the sun. The plastics industry has tried to make the rings easier to break apart by adding perforations.
Plastic bags, made of LDPE or HDPE, are increasingly frowned upon by green-minded people. San Francisco became the first U.S. city to ban them in big grocery stores. The plastics industry has argued that recycling the bags can mitigate their potential damage, but bag takeback programs at retail stores remain few and far between.
Polypropylene, or PP, is used in the products in this photograph as well as diapers, pails, dishes, candy containers, and lab equipment. The purple product pictured here is made from recycled polypropylene from Recycline.
Makers of electronics packaging, including Microsoft, are increasingly using the recycled material instead of toxic PVC.
Polypropylene is regarded as a relatively benign plastic. But Japanese researchers have found that tiny pellets of polypropylene floating in the ocean concentrate poisons including DDT and PCBs at levels one million times stronger than in the water.
Polystyrene, also known as Styrofoam, is used in disposable cups and take-out food containers, packing peanuts, trays, and egg cartons.
Fast-food chains, including McDonald's, phased out polystyrene for sandwich containers more than 20 years ago. Ozone layer-depleting CFCs haven't been used to make Polystyrene since the late 1980s.
But environmental groups dislike the material because it involves toxic Styrene, labeled a possible human carcinogen by the EPA. The manufacture of Polystyrene is known to pollute nearby air and water. This type of plastic isn't commonly accepted by municipal recycling programs.
The No. 7 SPI code is generally a wild card marking plastics that don't fall within the other six categories. These include polycarbonate bottles, which are understood by scientists to wreak havoc on human hormones by leaching bisphenol-A into hot beverages. As a result, polycarbonate baby bottles are losing favor with the public, and retailers including Toys R Us are starting to sell more BPA-free bottles.
Some popular Nalgene-brand, reusable, colored water bottles are labeled as No. 7, although the company also makes bottles from No. 2 HDPE plastic.
However, No. 7 plastics include those that are gentler to the environment.
For example, the microwaveable beige bowl pictured here is made of plant-based, biodegradable plastic. Plastic dishware and cutlery from companies such as Cereplast are increasingly available in natural food stores and in San Francisco restaurants. It and other companies use plants including corn, tapioca, rice, and potatoes. However, opponents of genetic modification warn against the use of modified corn by producers such as Cargill's NatureWorks.
Among the more "natural" plastics are new bags that are made from petroleum, but that break down more quickly than others and can be added to a compost heap. Companies including Metabolix are experimenting with growing plastics within plants. However, some green watchdogs argue that these materials are too new to be fairly labeled as eco-friendly.
The market for bioplastics will grow to 15 to 20 percent of the market by 2025, according to a report by Helmut Kaiser Consultancy.
Some consumers concerned about plastics leaching cancer-linked, hormone-bending chemicals into their drinking water are turning to stainless steel bottles such as those from Klean Kanteen, Sigg, and Timolino.
The SPI plastic resin codes can help consumers to figure out what to toss in the trash versus a recycling bin, but they don't appear on much other packaging, such as clamshell packs for electronics, roll-on deodorant bottles, or many plastic bags.
Nor is there any easy way to recycle items with hidden plastic linings, such as these liquid containers. Recyclers tend to curse such containers when people toss them improperly into recycling bins. Another common recycling faux pas is caused by the lack of labeling on plastic caps, which often don't match the type of plastic used in the bottles or tubs they seal.
Companies large and small are starting to turn to plastics made of plants rather than petroleum. However, most plastics are still made from fossil fuels.
Plastics make up 11.7 percent of U.S. waste and are among the least-recycled items. The manufacture of plastics can involve the emission of toxic substances into the atmosphere. And when plastics are incinerated, toxics such as lead and chlorine are released.
Chemists have spun hundreds of kinds of plastics, but most common containers fall in one of seven categories. To help recycling centers sort landfill-bound plastics from those than can find life in new products, the Society of the Plastics Industry developed the numeric system to identify the type of plastic resins used.
One of the most common types of plastic is polyethylene terephthalate (PET or PETE), commonly found in bottles of soda, juice, water, and cough syrup, and jars of peanut butter. The bottoms of these containers are usually stamped with the chasing arrows symbol and the number 1, a code for PET.
An urban legend circulating over e-mail has warned people of cancer-causing chemicals leaching from water bottles left in hot cars, although PET is understood to be one of the least toxic forms of plastic.
The EPA no longer lists DEHA, a chemical used in PET, as a carcinogen. Contrary to what their name seems to suggest, PET plastics do not contain phthalate softeners, found in vinyl, which studies increasingly link to cancer and infertility.
Studies do show that PET bottles can leach toxic antimony, although at levels deemed safe (PDF) by the World Health Organization. And doctors advise against reusing disposable plastic water bottles because they are hard to clean and can trap bacteria.
High-density polyethylene, or No. 2 HDPE, used in shampoo and detergent bottles, milk jugs, cosmetics, motor oil, toys, and sturdy shopping bags, is considered one of the safer plastics. HDPE is often opaque or cloudy. Some recycling centers can only handle clear No. 2 plastics, such as milk jugs, but not colored bottles.
As rule of thumb, bottles, jars, and jugs are most likely to be collected for recycling, particularly those labeled 1 or 2.
Tubs, lids, spray pumps, buckets, films, bags, and items containing toxic chemicals such as drain cleaner, are less likely to be accepted by recyclers.
Environmental groups generally warn against using plastics No. 3, 6, and 7, whose toxic side effects are best understood. However, the making of No. 2 HDPE has involved toxic chemicals such as hexane and benzene. Plastics makers stress the safety of their products and aim to debunk myths.
But most plastic is "downcycled," meaning that unlike materials such as pure aluminum, it loses valuable properties and strength the more it is recycled. Unfortunately, there are no hard and fast plastics recycling rules, which vary by region. Many communities lack the resources to handle all types, so it's necessary to check local guidelines before tossing something in a recycling bin. Plus, the majority of plastics collected, even in the San Francisco Bay Area, are sent to Asia, particularly China, which further increases the carbon emissions of the plastics life cycle.
In terms of shipments, making plastics is the fifth largest U.S. manufacturing industry in 2005, according to the American Chemistry Council. The sector employs more than 1.1 million people, according to the Society of the Plastics Industry.
Polyvinyl chloride, or No. 3 PVC, is found in shower curtains, meat and cheese wrappers, three-ring binders, some bottles, plumbing pipes, and building materials. Commonly called vinyl, PVC and closely-related PVDC differ from other vinyls, which lack the toxic chloride. PVC continues to be used in many toys.
The plastics industry defends the safety of PVC, but it's the most toxic plastic, according to many environmental and health groups. Both the making and disposal of PVC release dioxin, one of the most poisonous, cancer-linked chemicals, into the air and water.
PVC alternatives include PEVA for shower curtains and PVA in paints and glues. However, unless otherwise marked, most vinyl products use PVC.
The first Saran Wrap was made of PVDC, but the brand switched to less-toxic LDPE (No. 4) several years ago. Neither Glad nor Ziploc use PVDC, although some deli counters and cheese sellers continue to wrap their goods in it. Consumer Reports found 10 years ago that DEHA leached from PVDC wrap into cheese.
For flexibility, PVC children's toys and sex toys also contains phthalates, which are now commonly found in the blood of humans. These chemicals are known to interrupt hormonal activities and are tied to infertility and early-onset puberty. Electronics makers including Apple have been criticized for using phthalates in gadgets including iPods; Apple is discontinuing the use of PVC.
Wal-Mart, Target, Sears, and Kmart have agreed to phase out PVC goods. Packaging designers are ceasing the use of PVC from "clamshell" packaging of consumer electronics.
For a humorous introduction to concerns about PVC, the documentary Blue Vinyl tracks a woman's efforts to convince her parents not to use vinyl siding on their home.
Low-density polyethylene, or No. 4 LDPE, is used in shopping bags, six-pack rings, hard drive casings, CD and DVD cases, and some bottles. Unlike PVC, LDPE isn't regarded as a "bad" plastic by most eco-watchdogs. Potentially toxic industrial chemicals involved in its manufacture, however, include butane, benzene, and vinyl acetate.
A common environmental horror story is that of six-pack rings strangling birds and sea turtles. But for 19 years federal law has required six-pack rings to break down when exposed to the sun. The plastics industry has tried to make the rings easier to break apart by adding perforations.
Plastic bags, made of LDPE or HDPE, are increasingly frowned upon by green-minded people. San Francisco became the first U.S. city to ban them in big grocery stores. The plastics industry has argued that recycling the bags can mitigate their potential damage, but bag takeback programs at retail stores remain few and far between.
Polypropylene, or PP, is used in the products in this photograph as well as diapers, pails, dishes, candy containers, and lab equipment. The purple product pictured here is made from recycled polypropylene from Recycline.
Makers of electronics packaging, including Microsoft, are increasingly using the recycled material instead of toxic PVC.
Polypropylene is regarded as a relatively benign plastic. But Japanese researchers have found that tiny pellets of polypropylene floating in the ocean concentrate poisons including DDT and PCBs at levels one million times stronger than in the water.
Polystyrene, also known as Styrofoam, is used in disposable cups and take-out food containers, packing peanuts, trays, and egg cartons.
Fast-food chains, including McDonald's, phased out polystyrene for sandwich containers more than 20 years ago. Ozone layer-depleting CFCs haven't been used to make Polystyrene since the late 1980s.
But environmental groups dislike the material because it involves toxic Styrene, labeled a possible human carcinogen by the EPA. The manufacture of Polystyrene is known to pollute nearby air and water. This type of plastic isn't commonly accepted by municipal recycling programs.
The No. 7 SPI code is generally a wild card marking plastics that don't fall within the other six categories. These include polycarbonate bottles, which are understood by scientists to wreak havoc on human hormones by leaching bisphenol-A into hot beverages. As a result, polycarbonate baby bottles are losing favor with the public, and retailers including Toys R Us are starting to sell more BPA-free bottles.
Some popular Nalgene-brand, reusable, colored water bottles are labeled as No. 7, although the company also makes bottles from No. 2 HDPE plastic.
However, No. 7 plastics include those that are gentler to the environment.
For example, the microwaveable beige bowl pictured here is made of plant-based, biodegradable plastic. Plastic dishware and cutlery from companies such as Cereplast are increasingly available in natural food stores and in San Francisco restaurants. It and other companies use plants including corn, tapioca, rice, and potatoes. However, opponents of genetic modification warn against the use of modified corn by producers such as Cargill's NatureWorks.
Among the more "natural" plastics are new bags that are made from petroleum, but that break down more quickly than others and can be added to a compost heap. Companies including Metabolix are experimenting with growing plastics within plants. However, some green watchdogs argue that these materials are too new to be fairly labeled as eco-friendly.
The market for bioplastics will grow to 15 to 20 percent of the market by 2025, according to a report by Helmut Kaiser Consultancy.
Some consumers concerned about plastics leaching cancer-linked, hormone-bending chemicals into their drinking water are turning to stainless steel bottles such as those from Klean Kanteen, Sigg, and Timolino.
The SPI plastic resin codes can help consumers to figure out what to toss in the trash versus a recycling bin, but they don't appear on much other packaging, such as clamshell packs for electronics, roll-on deodorant bottles, or many plastic bags.
Nor is there any easy way to recycle items with hidden plastic linings, such as these liquid containers. Recyclers tend to curse such containers when people toss them improperly into recycling bins. Another common recycling faux pas is caused by the lack of labeling on plastic caps, which often don't match the type of plastic used in the bottles or tubs they seal.
